The topic of Greek art forms and architecture is one that would take up many papers and books and could not possibly be contained in one short paper; nonetheless, this will be a brief study of how Greek artworks and styles changed from the Geometric through the Hellenistic periods, ending with Roman occupation of the Greek peninsula and Egypt ca. 30 BCE.[i]
Prior to the rise of the Geometric period in Greek art history ca. 800 BCE, there was already a vast number of Mycenaean palaces, frescoes, and other works of art completed. Unfortunately, around 1200 BCE, war destroyed many of the pre-historic Aegean art works and palaces, leaving what is often called the “Dark Age of Greece”.[ii] It would take 400 years for Greek society and culture to recover to a stable period. Once economic conditions improved and the Greeks began trading with other parts of the world, the Geometric period began to shine through. Characteristics of these periods are easily identifiable by their sharp, patterned lines and abstract motifs, mainly on kraters and other vessels. One such example is a Geometric krater from the Dipylon cemetery in Athens. It dates to ca. 740 BCE and has clear Geometric patterns standing above and below scenes from a funerary procession.[iii] These designs show a massive shift in Greek art and coincide with other cultural achievements of the time; achievements such Homer’s poems being written down and high praise being attributed to them. Additionally, human forms began to emerge again; many in the form of small solid-cast bronze statues, such as the “Hero and centaur” as it’s called.[iv] John Griffiths Pedley discusses, in one of his analyses, how these early and simple Geometric design were the foundation for later, more complex stories and designs, and more expressive displays of Greek thinking.[v]
Even more so than the Geometric period, trade during the Orientalizing period (ca. 700 BCE) accelerated and Greek artists were subjected to many other cultures’ art forms and styles, namely the Egyptians, among other Eastern societies.[vi] One vessel that significantly differs from the Geometric period is a Corinthian amphora ca. 625-600 BCE.[vii] This vessel does have Geometric characteristics, such as the distinct boundaries between scenes and horizontal straight lines. However, this amphora also uses the black-figure technique to portray many complex animals that clearly indicate Eastern (Orientalizing) animals, thus highlighting some of the major influences Eastern culture had on their Greek contemporaries.
The Archaic Period, ca. 600-480 BCE, gave rise to new styles and the proliferation of new ideas. One of these styles is of the Archaic statuary; Egyptian influence at this point is very evident in Greece and it can easily be seen in the New York kouros. This statue, dating to ca. 600 BCE, adopted the Egyptian form of a very rigid body; standing upright, almost unnaturally, with straight arms and clenched fists.[viii] These kouroi had a variety of uses because of their generic and expressionless forms, some uses were for funerals and in sanctuaries. Not only were Greek statues influenced by the Egyptians, the architecture was as well. For example, in the sixth century BCE, the Greeks began exploring and trading across the Mediterranean, they saw the massive works of the Egyptians and were inspired by the style. They returned home and used what they saw to create some of the more recognizable types of temples from the ancient Greek world, one of which is the Temple of Hera I, (“Basilica”) in Paestum, Italy.[ix] This Doric temple has features similar to those of the temple of Karnak in Egypt; the big thick columns holding up the temple roof is one such similarity. These Doric temples are typical of Archaic Greek architecture and represents their focus on finding the perfect temple with the perfect ratios embedded into the framework of these constructions. Leaning towards the middle to end of the 6th century BCE, Athenian black-figure painting had become the primary style for artists painting on vessels. The most famous of these black-figure artists is Exekias (flourished ca. 550-525 BCE) and made some of the most famous black-figure vessels, including the amphora with Achilles and Ajax playing dice.[x] This technique is one of the defining styles of the Archaic period and was learned from the Corinthians through trade. This is exemplifying the large influence of Eastern societies’ cultures had on the Greek artwork.
The Classical period in Greek history refers to the time period after the Greeks defeat the Persians in 480 BCE and lasts until 323 BCE. This is considered by most historians to be the high point in Greek society with major contributions in many fields of science, art, and architecture.[xi] The major difference in early Classical Greek art is that it takes on a more humanistic approach. The old rigid style common of the Archaic was gone away with and now a more relaxed and flowing style towards human expression prevailed.[xii] This is evident in statues such as the Kritios Boy from the Acropolis in Athens, Greece. It shows contrapposto which is a natural stance of humans and became common to portray as it gave the viewers a more natural sense of the subject. The other major part of the early Classical period was the architecture. The Parthenon, in Athens, is one such building. It was rebuilt after the Persians sacked it[xiii], and was overhauled extensively, incorporating grandiose pediment reliefs and at one time a massive ivory and gold statue of Athena inside. This would have been a major symbol for the Greeks and a source of great pride. This highlights the value they put into their deities and how big of a role the gods played in everyday life.
The Late Classical period, ca. 400-323 BCE, began after the Peloponnesian War, which ended in 404 BCE. During this time, artists stopped focusing so much on the ideal aspect of things, and instead began focusing on things that were more real. For example, the artist Praxiteles, sculpted a work in which Aphrodite is nude.[xiv] Nobody prior to this has created a piece depicting a goddess in the nude. This clearly represents a more human demeanor compared to the Archaic and earlier Classical periods. In architecture, the Corinthian style column became popular and spread rapidly across Greece. It features an ornate design and was a popular choice compared to the older Doric and Ionic columns. This era of Greek art is known for its humanizing qualities and its attempt to portray people and gods as real as possible.
The Hellenistic Period, ca. 323-30 BCE, began with the death of Alexander the Great, and ended with the death of Cleopatra, when Egypt got conquered by Rome. This period is well known for its very dramatic displays of emotion in its subjects. Many artists chose subjects that would have been appalling in previous periods. Subjects such as a Gaul chieftain killing himself and his wife, erotic scenes of goddesses, and older individuals dying. One of the most famous statues is a ca. 1st century AD sculpture of the Trojan priest Laocoon and his sons being attacked by sea serpents. This scene is very violent and full of expression, you can see the pained expression in Laocoon’s face and the strain on his body. This highlights the artists preference now to depict very emotional scenes and get away from the static pieces of the past.
Greek art form changed significantly from the Geometric to the Hellenistic period, incorporating new ideas from different cultures, such as the Corinthian columns, black-figure designs, and the Egyptian’s influence on architecture and statuary. Over the course of a civilization’s lifespan, often the cultural tendencies are reflected in the artwork of the society in many ways; this is evident in the Greek culture with the high point of defeating the Persians correlating with the proud and idealistic period of Classical Greek art, among others. Greek art plays a significant part in the history of art in general, as modern architecture and artworks are still based off the original Greek ideas and many more will continue to be inspired by the great skill and variety of the Greek masterpieces. Notes
Notes
[i] Fred S. Kleiner, Gardner’s Art Through the Ages A Global History Volume I, 16th ed. (Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2018), p. 163.
[ii] Ibid., p. 108.
[iii] Ibid.
[iv] Ibid., p. 109.
[v] Pedley, John Griffiths, Greek Art, (Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies, vol. 20, no. 1, 1994), p. 34. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4112950.
[vi] Fred S. Kleiner, Gardner’s Art Through the Ages A Global History Volume I, 16th ed. (Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2018), p. 109.
[vii] Ibid., p. 110. fig 5-5.
[viii] Ibid., p.112. fig 5-7.
[ix] Ibid., p.117. fig 5-14.
[x] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. “Black-Figure Pottery.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Accessed October 10, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/art/black-figure-pottery.
[xi] Fred S. Kleiner, Gardner’s Art Through the Ages A Global History Volume I, 16th ed. (Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2018), p. 125.
[xii] Ibid., p.128.
[xiii] Ibid., p. 133.
[xiv] Ibid., p.144.
Bibliography
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. Black-Figure Pottery, (Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Accessed October 10, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/art/black-figure-pottery )
Kleiner, Fred. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages A Global History Volume I, 16th ed. (Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2018)
Merriam-Webster, Contrapposto, Merriam-Webster, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/contrapposto.
Pedley, John Griffiths, Greek Art, Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies, vol. 20, (no. 1, 1994 p. 34. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4112950.)
